Second Language Learning
When one acquires a second language in a circumstance similar to those of first language acquisition then one is bilingual. A foreign language is a language that is not generally spoken in the surrounding community. A second language is a language that is spoken in the surrounding community. Acquisition is the gradual development over time of ability in language by using it naturally in communicative situation with others who know the language. In contrast learning applies to a more conscious process which includes accumulating knowledge through analysis of the features of a language such as vocabulary and grammar. This is why math is learned not acquired. Learned language in schools typically results in more knowledge “about” the language (shown via tests) versus fluency in using the language (shown by social interaction).
One of the problems in language acquisition is that most people learn a second language after they have developed an unconscious commitment to the sounds and structures of an already known language. Often even after many years of learning one may begin to achieve native proficiency in the written language but never the spoken. Example of this is Joseph Conrad. Another factor is age as this contributes strongly to our pronunciation abilities. That being said the optimum age for learning seems to be between ten to sixteen where children still have the flexibility of our inherent capacity for language but also the maturation of cognitive skills to more effectively analyse the features of the L2. A group of factors known as affective factors go against that statement. Affective factors create a barrier to acquisition, they are normally caused because we are stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious, or unmotivated. To combat this some courses for adults have sessions with alcohol, however once sober the factors affect the individual once more.
Focus on Teaching Method
The most traditional approach for teaching is the grammar-translation method which has its roots in the teaching of Latin. This approach relies on vocab, grammar rules, memorization, and a focus on written language. The problems are that is leave students ignorant of everyday conversation skills, e.g. great French grades but can’t talk in France.
A popular twentieth century approach is the audiolingual method. This method required hours of oral drills negatives beyond being boring are that the isolated practice in drilling language patterns bares not resemblance to the interactional nature of spoken language use.
A group of newer approaches are the communicative approaches. These are all based on the belief that the functions of language should be emphasized rather than the forms of the language. This means lessons are focused on asking for things in different social setting rather than the forms of past tense. These changes have coincided with attempts to provide more appropriate materials for L2 learning that has specific purposes such as “English for medicine” or “Japanese for business”.
Focus on the Learner
The biggest shift in recent times has been from concern with the teacher and textbook to a focus on the learner and acquisition process. One radical change is also the toleration of “errors” produced by students. An “error” is not something that hinders their progress but a clue to active learning progress being made as they test out new way of communicating.
Some errors are true errors they can be due something called transfer (aka crosslinguistic influence) which means using sounds, expression, or structures from L1 when performing L2. If language have a similar format then they can experience positive transfer (such as same word order) if they are very different then they can instead experience negative transfer also known as interference. That being said interference (negative transfer) decreases as the learner develops greater familiarity with their L2.
When one examines errors produced one may notice that they do not reflect L1 or L1. This suggests a middle ground and is called interlanguage and is now considered the basis of all L2 production. If students do not proceed past their interlanguage then they have experienced fossilization.
There are two types of motivation for language learning.
- Instrumental motivation - they want to learn L2 to achieve some goal
- Integrative motivation - they want to learn L2 for social purposes
The learner who is willing to make mistakes and takes risk will tend, given the opportunity, to be the more successful student. An important part of that opportunity is the presence of input. The term input refers to the language that a learner is exposed to. Input can be comprehensible by being simpler in structure and vocab as sin the variety of speech known as foreigner talk or it can be negotiated input which is L2 material that the learner can acquire in interaction through requests for clarification while active attention is being focused on what is said. Output is the learner’s own product of L2 and is a meaningful interaction that is another important part of their language acquisition but is one of the most difficult things to provide students in a large class.
Task-based learning is using activities involving information exchange and problem solving as a way of developing ability in language. Contrary to what one may believe learners do not learn from each other’s mistakes in this process. The goal of this type of activity is not that they will know more about the L2 but that they will develop communicative competence.
Communicative Competence
Communicative competence can be defined as the general ability to use language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly.
- Grammatical competence - involves the accurate use of words and structures.
- Sociolinguistic competence - the ability to use appropriate language (e.g. can I please have some water? vs give me the water!)
- Strategic competence - the ability to organise a message effectively and to compensate via strategies for any difficulty
When a learner doesn’t know a word they typically follow two paths. The first is silence the other is using a communication strategy such as describing the thing.
Study Questions
- Which of these students are studying English in an EFL setting: Chinese student in Beijing or English student in Paris or Japanese students in London? The Chinese student in Beijing.
- Why do we say that mathematics is learned not acquired? There is an active process involved in accumulating math knowledge. If it were acquired it could be gained without conscious effort such as L1 acquisition in children.
- What are four typical barriers to acquiring L2 as an adult compared to L1 acquisition as a child? Not enough time, no proper incentive, affective factors, and critical period for language acquisition has passed.
- What aspect of language learning do you think “the Joseph Conrad phenomenon” refers to? Ability to master L2 writing but not able to speak without an accent.
- What are two affective factors that can create a barrier in classroom language? Self-conscious and lack of motivation.
- What is one personality trait that is a positive factor in language learning? Self-confidence
- Which approach to language teaching is characterized by oral drills? The audio-lingual method.
- What is the difference between positive and negative transfer? Positive transfer means L1 and L2 share similarities so can use that knowledge, negative transfer means they differ but you try to apply it anyways.
- What happens when an interlanguage fossilizes? Forms spoken do not match target language and no further progress is made.
- What is the difference between the two types of motivation to learn another language? Instrumental motivation means they want to learn language to achieve a goal while integrative means they want to learn L2 for social purpose.
- What kind of input is necessary for acquisition? Comprehensible or negotiated input.
- What are the three components of communicative competence? Grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence.