Writing
Writing is the symbolic representation of a language through the use of graphic signs. The first graphic representations can be traced to cave drawings from over 20 000 years ago, clay tokens for bookkeeping from 10 000 years ago but the earliest form of writing for which there if clear evidence comes from cuneiform on clay tablets from 5 000 years ago. About 3 000 years ago we have inscriptions more like today’s writing.
Pictograms also called picture-writing are a way of writing in which a picture or drawing of an object is used to represent the object. When a symbol extends from something visible to something conceptual the symbol is no longer considered a pictogram but instead an ideogram or idea-writing. Note that neither a pictogram or ideaogram represent words or sounds in a particular language. When symbols are used to represent words in a language they are called logograms or word-writing.
An early example of logographic writing is the system used by the Sumerians. The inscriptions they made are more generally described as cuneiform writing. The word cuneiform means wedge-shaped and a wedge shaped tool (Latin word for wedge is cuneous) was pressed into soft clay to form the permanent symbols. Examples of modern logograms are $, 8, &, and the most common @. Many Chjnese written symbols also known as characters are used as representations of the meaning of words, or parts of words, and not of the sounds of spoken language. This type of writing is technically descibed as “morphographic” because the symbols have come to be used for morphemes rather than words. This means that even if different regions pronounce words differently they can all still read the same text but on the other hand also means there are many characters (upwards of 50 000).
Phonographic Writing
When a language incorporates the sounds of words into the writing it is known as phonographic writing. The general pattern of using existing symbols to represent the sounds of words in a language is often described in terms of a process known as the rebus principle. During this process the symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word (or part of it) used to refer to that entity, that symbol then comes to be used whenever that sound occurs in any words. This process can be seen in recent times in the English language with the online community and texters using the symbol 2 to not only represent the number two but also the phonetic pronunciation to, too, two, the same has occured with the letter u, c, and 8, as in CUL8R → see you later.
Syllabic Writing
When a writing system employs a set of symbols, each one representing the pronunciation of a syllable, it is described as syllabic writing. Modern Japanese can be written with a set of single symbols representing spoken symbols or hiragana therefore the language is often described as having a partially syllabic writing system or a syllabary. The Cherokee form of writing invented in the early nineteenth century was a syllabic writing system. Full use of syllabic writing occurred 3 000 to 4 000 years ago with the Phoenicians. They wrote right to left as modern Arabic is written.
Alphabetic Writing
At its vary base an alphabet is a set of written symbols each one representing a single type of sound or phoneme. A consonantal alphabet is a way of writing in which easy symbol represents a consonant sound, so reader becomes rdr. This alphabet was originated in the writing system of the Phoenicians who developed the order of A, B, C, D…. The early Greeks took it a step further by adding in vowels as their own distinct entities. This meant that the consonant “alep” became the symbol for the vowel sound A. This is why some scholars credit the Greeks with the creation of alphabetic writing. The actual form of a number of letters in modern European alphabets can be trades from their origins in Egyptian hieroglyphics through Phoenician and Greek to the symbols we use today.
Written English
Orthography is the spelling system of a language. The English orthography is subject to a lot of variation. This is due in a large part to the borrowing of many words often with their spelling.
A combination of two letter consistently used for a single sound such as ph /f/ and sh /ʃ/ is called a digraph.
Another reason for such odd spelling is that much of it is based on printed text which was done by Flemish speakers who could not consistently make accurate decision about English pronunciation. Yet another cause is the change in pronunciation of spoken English. Such as the implementation of silent letter, like the k in knight. There are also words that violate the one sound-one symbol principle of pure alphabetic writing, the worst offender of this is the silent final -e. This means we have to learn the rules of when to pronounce this but also the patterns of influence it has on the preceding vowel, as in the different pronunciations of a in the pair hat/hate and o in not/note.
Study Questions
- Approximately when were clay tokens first used as a means of bookkeeping. 10 000 years ago.
- Why is one early writing system called “cuneiform”? Because they were made with a wedge shaped tool and the Latin word for wedge is cuneous.
- What is the basic difference between a logographic writing system and a phonographic writing system? Logographic system symbols represent words is phonographic system symbols represent sounds.
- What happens in the process of changed based on the rebus principle? The symbol for one entity comes to be uses as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity. That symbol is then used wherever the sound appears.
- What kind of writing system was invented for Cherokee? Syllabic writing.
- Is the text message “cu@9” an example or logographic or alphabetic writing? Logographic
- What is the name given to the writing system used for Russian? Cryillic alphabet
- Where will you find the writing system with the longest history of continuous use? China
- What is the best way to describe the written symbols used in Chinese writing: pictographic or phonographic or morphographic? Morphographic.
- Which of these symbols ($, 8, ?, &) is not used as a logogram? The ? symbol.
- Which people created the basic order of letter symbols (A, B, C, D)? Phoenicians
- What is a digraph? Two letters used for a single sound.