Chapter 3

Notes

Research on learner characteristics

• we can’t directly observe and measure characteristics such as motivation, extroversion etc.
• individual characteristics are not independent of each other
• correlational research - two variables may rise or fall in similar patterns but this does not prove that one caused the other
• social and educational settings play a part
  • learners who are motivated to engage with native speakers may find themselves marginalized by social and educational practices that limit opportunities for interaction
• understanding relationships between individual characteristics, social situation, and success in L2 learning is of great importance to researchers and educators

Language learning aptitude

• aptitude is the ease and speed with which an individual learns L2
• aptitude can be measured through the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) or the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Batter (PLAB)
• both tests measure L2 learners’ ability to:
  • identify and memorise new sounds
  • understand functions of words in sentences
  • figure out grammatical rules from language samples
  • remember new words and language patterns
• ROTE memory was traditionally valued as important to language learning but has since been shown to be one of the least effective predictors of success
• working memory relates to the ammount of information one can process, it is an important variable in predicting successful L2A
• language analysis is the ability to recognize how linguistic elements function and relate to each other and is also a good prediction of L2A success
• successful learners do not need to be equally strong is all components of aptitude
• matching the type of instruction (for example, inductive/deductive; memory-based/analytic) with learner aptitudes and preferences can be beneficial but is not necessary for success
• early research (when language teacher was based on grammar translation or audiolingual) revealed a substantial relationship between performance on MLAT or PLAB and performance in L2A
• with the introduction of communicative language teaching, the relevance of abilities measured by aptitude tests was questions
• ongoing research confirms that working memory and language analytic ability are correlated with L2A in a variety of environments

Personality

• research investigating relationships between personality characteristics and L2A have produced mixed results
  • extroverted learners are more successful than introverted in some studies; quiet and observant learners success in some learning situations
• anxiety - feelings of worry, nervousness, and stress that some students experience in L2 instruction has been extensively investigated
• research shows that anxiety may interfere with learning, but it is context-specific and can be overcome
• not all anxiety is bad, it can have a positive effect and facilitate learning
• WTC is associated with anxiety and related to communicative confidence, which is connected to a learners’ previous contact with L2 speakers
• learners’ WTC in L2 is related to their WTC in L1
• research to investigate WTC as it occurs in L2 classrooms is increasing
• research does not show a direct relationship between any one personality trait and L2 acquisition
• personality characteristics are difficult to measure
• personality is more related to conversational skills than grammatical knowledge/ability, which is often used to assess learning
• more qualitative research may be able to capture the complexities of the role of personality in L2A

Attitudes and motivation

• positive attitudes relate to a willingness to keep learning
• Gardner and Lambert described two types of motivation linked to learners’ communicative needs and attitudes to the L2 community:
  • integrative focused on personal growth
  • instrumental focused on immediate or practical goals

Motivation in the classroom

• motivation is dynamic and changing both in and out of the classroom
• motivation in the classroom can change within short periods of time
• teachers can contribute to learner motivation in terms of:
  • classroom - creating a welcome classroom
  • content - making it interesting and relevant
  • learning goals - challenging but manageable and clear
  • atmosphere - supportive
• Guilloteaux and Dörnyei investigated the links between teachers’ motivational practices and evidence of students’ motivation for learning
  • discovered significant positive correlations between teachers’ motivational behaviour and learners’ engagement behaviours and learners’ self-report questionnaire

Identity, ethnic group affiliation, and learner agency

• power relationships affect interactions between L2 learners and target language speakers
  • highly motivated immigrant ESL learners may be reluctant to speak in situations of a power imbalance in the workplace
  • Japanese L2 learners of English with high levels of English proficiency spoke with an added strong Japanese access and intentionally produced grammatical errors so that they would not be perceived as considering themselves to be superior
• learners have ‘agency’
  • they are not passive participants
    • involved in choices about content, pedagogy, and assessment practice, and through informed use of tech inside and outside classroom for language learning

Learning styles

• learning styles refers to an individual’s preferred way of learning (for example, visual, auditory)
• research has not found strong evidence for the value of teaching learning styles, or evidence that learning styles have a neurological basis
• no textbook or method will suit the need (or perceived needs) of all learners

Learner beliefs

• L2 learners (particularly older learners) have strong beliefs about how they learn best and what type of instruction ‘works’ for them, teachers and learners don’t always agree about this
• both learners and teachers prefer ‘integrated’ grammar instruction but see the value to isolated
  • longer term learners prefer integrated (as they are tired of isolated grammar)

Individual differences and classroom instruction

• teachers cannot customize instruction for each learners
• teachers can:
  • aim to provide a variety of learning opportunities
  • encourage learners to develop flexibility in approaching language learning

Age and L2 learning

• according to CPH, biological differences between adults and children account for differences in learning outcomes, however conditions for language learning are usually very different:

Children	Adults
more time exposed to L2	less time exposed to L2
no pressure to produce language	pressure to produce language
no pressure to produce language that is fluent and accurate	greater need to use more complex language

• parent, educators, and policymakers often conclude that the earlier one begins learning L2 in school the better
• research has revealed that evidence in support of early learning differs depending on the context in which the L2 is learned
• an early start is more predictive of success in community learning than in instructional contexts
• research investigating L2 learning in a community or ’natural’ context shows:
  • those who began learning L2 in early childhood are more likely to be perceived as indistinguishable from native speakers
  • learners who begin learning L2 before age 15 achieve native-like mastery of grammar
• critical view of CPH research questions whether research should assess L2 success by comparing L2 learners with (monolingual) L1 speakers:
  • monolingual bias denies the multi-competence that comes from knowledge of multiple languages (Cook 1997)
  • researchers should compare L2 learners’ language with bi/multilinguals rather than monolingual L2 speakers (Ortega 2013)
• learners who begin L2 learning the earliest are the most successful in making correct grammaticality judgements
• older learners with high aptitude are successful in making correct grammaticality judgements, but no such correlation was observed with younger learners, this suggests that older and younger learners learn differently
• despite advantages for younger learners, learners who began in late adolescence often achieved the same level of grammatical knowledge

Age and L2 instruction

• research investigating L2 learning in instructional context shows:
  • older learners are more efficient than younger learners
  • later starters in French as a foreign language programs did as well as learners who began their instruction earlier (Burstall 1975)
  • EFL learners in Barcelona who began their instruction later performed better on most language measures than those who had begun earlier, and early learners did not surpass older learners in later school years (Munoz 2006)
• there is little evidence that the earliest possible start will lead to the best long-term outcomes when it comes to L2 learning in schools
• older learners possess greater metalinguistic knowledge, more developed memory strategies, and problem-solving skills that are compatible with school learning
• younger learners have a more implicit/intuitive approach to learning
• for implicit learning to succeed, massive amounts of exposure to the language are needed
• L2 instructional settings do not typically allow learners enough time for their implicit/intuitive approach to be an advantage
• decisions about when to start L2 instruction in schools should be based on realistic goals and on realistic estimates of how long it takes to achieve them
• one or two hours a week will not produce advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they began
• when the goal is basic communicative ability, older learners may be able to make better use of the limited time they have for L2 instruction

Sparknotes

• results of research on individual differences are not easy to interpret due to:
  • difficulties defining and measuring them
  • characteristics that are not independent of one another
• researchers are developing better ways to investigate these complex relationships
• in the meantime, teachers need to create a variety of learning activities for learner with different abilities and learning preferences

Vocabulary

Term	Definition
correlation	a statistical procedure that compares the relative frequency or size of different variables in order to determine whether there is a relationship between them (for example, whether an increase in one is associated with an increase in the other)
grammar translation	an approach to L2 teaching characterised by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of translation exercises
working memory	the cognitive ‘space’ in which we actively process new information or information that is currently in focus, also known as short term memory
willingness to communicate	(WTC) the predisposition of learners towards or away from communicating in a second/foreign language, several factors contribute to WTC including social, individual, situational, and motivational
quantitative research	an approach that requires the precise measurement of variables, in this study both the variable that is believed to affect learning the the learning itself are measured or ‘quantified’, this type of research requires careful selection of the measurements that will be used to represent the variables being studied
qualitative research	an approach that uses detailed description of the phenomena being studied rather than counting or measuring the exact amount of some specific variable or variables, this research requires extensive observation and insightful interpretation
instrumental motivation	motivation that is essentially practical, such as the need to learn the language in order to get a better job
integrative motivation	motivation for L2A that is based on a desire to know more about the culture and community of the target language group and even a desire to be more like members of that group
classroom observation scheme	a tool (often in the form of a grid or checklist) that consists for a set of predetermined categories used to record and describe teaching and learning outcomes
complex dynamic systems theory	(CDST) a theory that views language and language learning as complex systems that are embedded in and interact with other social, psychological, and cultural systems, the non linear and dynamic nature of language development are prominent features of CDST
rate of learning	the speed with which learners progress in their language development
monolingual bias	the idea that learners should see to become indistinguishable from native speakers
bi/multilingual turn	emphasis the value of knowing and using multiple languages in shaping both cognitive and social function, reflects the turn away from monolingual bias
implicit instruction	engaging students in activities in which their focus is on the meaning/content of the language they are using rather than on the linguistic forms that carry meaning
explicit instruction	engaging students in learning activities in which their focus is drawn to features of language form or structure, either by the use of metalinguistic terminology or by other ways of making students aware of the language features they are supposed to pay attention to

Munoz - Boys like games and girls like movies

1. Topic and topic area of the reading:
   (first/second language acquisition or bilingualism?, language learning theories/frameworks, individual differences, etc.?)

2. Research questions or aims:
   (what are researchers trying to find out? what questions do they ask?)

3. Important concepts and terminology:
   (how are they defined? are they provided in the glossary of the textbook? why are they important?)

4. Central arguments and hypotheses:
   (what schools of thought do exist? what are the generally accepted ideas?)

5. Methodology / kinds of study:
   (argumentational, empirical, experimental, etc.?)

6. Specific methods used:
   (what/who/how/when?)

7. Reported results and presented evidence:
   (what do the findings say to date? what evidence are they based on?)

8. Critical discussion: problematic issues/observations and limitations:
   (does the reading mention limitations? what limitations can you identify yourself?)

9. Contextualisation of the readings in the field:
   (how does the reading fit into what we have discussed so far? where does it ‘sit’ in the field of language learning and acquisition?)

   Moot for now.

10. Connections between readings:
    (what connections can you identify within and beyond the respective session’s topic? what do they tell?)

    Moot for now.

Study group questions

1. 1. Which of the learner characteristics as discussed in this chapter do you think matters the most in your own learning experience and/or in the learning experience of your students?

2. What aspects of language learning should we focus on for högstadiet (grades 7-9)? Which for gymnasiet (upper secondary school)?